• Peer Reviewed Articles
• Invited Chapters, Monographs and Other Papers (not peer reviewed)

PEER REVIEWED ARTICLES

Levy, Judith and Anderson, Tammy.  forthcoming in 2004.  Older Injectors Drug-Using Careers.  Addiction Theory and Research.

Anderson, Tammy L. and Levy, Judith A. 2003.  “Marginality Among Older Injectors in Today’s Illicit Drug Economy: Assessing the Impact of Ageing,” Addiction, 98: 761-770.

......Aims As conceptualized by Robert Park in 1928, the 'marginal man' occupies simultaneously an intermediate point between two distinct cultures that embody some level of contradictory normative expectations, behaviors, and beliefs. This paper explores the influence of ageing and social change on the creation of marginality among injection drug users over age 50 who have been chronic heroin users since their youth. Design Our data are drawn from in-depth interviews with 40 (28 male and 12 female) not-in-drug-treatment, active injecting drug users between the ages of 18 and 68.

Anderson, Tammy L., Shannon, Caitlin, Schyb, Igor. and Goldstein, Paul.  2002.  “Welfare Reform and Housing: Assessing the Impact to Substance Abusers,” Journal of Drug Issues. 

......The addiction disability (Supplemental Security Income and Social Security Disability Income program for drug abuse and alcoholism) was terminated by Congress in December 1996 as part of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). Discussions about welfare reform policies in the latter 20"h century have centered on Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) receipt by the general population. Far less attention has been paid to programs such as the addiction disability that were also affected by the PRWORA. Our purpose is to study the effect of this policy change on the housing status of former addiction disability recipients and to also explore whether and how disruptions in living situations increased risks for drug and alcohol use, criminal participation and victimization. We utilize insights from two major sociological theories of housing or homelessness, i.e., individualistic and structural, to guide our exploration of the policy's impact on housing. A qualitative analysis, featuring in-depth interviews with 101, nonrandomly selected former recipients revealed that disability benefits promoted housing autonomy, successful cohabitation, and overall housing stability. The termination of benefits, at a time of diminishing social services (e.g., cash and housing assistance) and a housing market explosion, increased various types of homelessness for respondents and dependency on family and friends. Such negative living outcomes, in turn, further escalated the risk of drug and alcohol use, criminal participation, and victimization. Individual-level factors also complicated

Anderson, Tammy L., Rosay, Andre B., and Saum, Christine.  2002.  “The Impact of Drug Use and Crime Involvement on Health Problems Among Female Drug Offenders,” The Prison Journal, 82(1): 50-68. 

......Health problems comprise some of the most important concerns about female offenders today. In comparison to others, they suffer more frequent and serious chronic disease, acute illness, and injuries. Although many have argued that these higher rates can be explained by poverty, inaccessible medical care, and poor nutrition, few have studied the impact of the severity of criminal and substance abuse involvement on the same. Consequently, the authors ask if these factors help explain the likelihood of leading health problems of female cocaine-abusing offenders. Bivariate logistic regression analyses on women (N = 848),from Dade County, Florida, show important effects of criminal and substance abuse involvement on chronic disease and illness, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS, and mental illness. However, after controlling for demographic variables with multivariate logistic models, their predictive power decreases substantially. The findings lend insights to both theoretical models explaining health problems and to policy recommendations for female offenders and inmates.

Goldstein, Paul, Anderson, Tammy L., Schyb, Igor, and Swartz, James.  2000.  “Models of Adaptation to Termination of the SSI/SSDI Addiction Disability: Hustlers, Good Citizens, and Lost Souls.” Advances in Medical Sociology, 7: 215-238. 

Siddiqui, Ohidul, Mott, Joshua A., Anderson, Tammy L., and Flay, Brian R.  1999.  “Application of Poisson Random-Effects Regression Models to the Analyses of Adolescents’ Current Level of Smoking,” Preventive Medicine, 29: 92-101.

......Background In school-based smoking prevention research, it is still debatable whether parents or peers are most influential to maintained smoking among adolescents. As a result, this study examines the effects of parental and peer approval of smoking on adolescents' current levels of smoking.

......Methods. Poisson random-effects regression models were used to assess the effects of parental and peer approval of smoking on adolescents' (n = 913) current level of smoking.

......Results. Results of these analyses indicate that a stronger relationship between parental approval of smoking and current level of smoking was found for female adolescents than for male adolescents. Conversely, a stronger relationship between peer approval of smoking and current level of smoking was found for male adolescents than for female adolescents. With respect to race, the influence of parental approval of smoking on adolescents' current level of smoking was generally more pronounced for minority adolescents, relative to white adolescents. However, the influence of peer approval of smoking on current level of smoking was strongest for white adolescents and was less strong for black, Hispanic, and Asian adolescents.

......Conclusion. The findings of this study demonstrated that the effects of parental and peer approval of smoking on adolescents' current levels of smoking were varied by gender and race. These differential effects may have some implication for the development of future school-based smoking prevention and cessation programs.

Siddiqui, Ohidul, Mott, Joshua A., Anderson, Tammy L., and Flay, Brian R.  1999.  “Characteristics of Inconsistent Respondents Who Have “Ever Used” Drugs in a School-Based Sample.” Substance Use and Misuse,  33(2): 269-295.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1998.  “A Cultural-Identity Theory of Drug Abuse.” The Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance, 1: 233-262.

......The purpose of this paper is to outline a new theory of drug abuse, that is, the cultural-identity theory. It seeks to inform substance abuse etiology by understanding how individual (i.e., micro) and environmental (i.e., meso and macro) phenomena influence the construction of drug-related identities and drug abuse. The theory proposes that drug abuse is an outcome of a drug-related identity change process featuring three micro-level (personal marginalization, ego identity discomfort, and lost control in defining an identity), two meso-level (social marginalization and identification with a drug subcultural group), and three macro-level (economic opportunity, educational opportunity, and popular culture) concepts. Together, they describe a motivation for drug-related identity change and an opportunity structure for that change. The theoretical model contains 12 hypothetical relationships that describe the links between the micro, meso, and macro-level concepts. The paper begins with a review of leading theories of drug use and abuse that identifies a niche the cultural identity theory proposes to fill. Suggestions for empirical investigation of the theory conclude the paper.

Anderson, Tammy L. and Bondi, Lynn.  1998.  “Exiting the Drug Addict Role: Variations by Race and Gender.” Symbolic Interaction, 21(2): 155-174. 

......Our paper explores race and gender variations in the processes of exiting a "drug-addict role" and in creating a "recovering-addict role" within the ideological constraints of 12-Step programs. Our method is qualitative and features in-depth interviewing with 45 currently abstinent drug addicts from the 12-Step programs of Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) and Narcotics Anonymous (N.A.) in the Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Area as well as a residential and out-patient treatment program in mid-Michigan. Our respondents' exit processes typically began with doubts about the drug addict role followed by an often long and dynamic period of seeking alternatives to it without giving up drugs and alcohol completely. In some cases, however, participation in a new role initiated doubts about an existing one. Contrary to extant research, turning points or epiphanic moments in existing roles were riot always identified. Most importantly, however, we found many differences by race and gender in what comprised the exit process. Gender socialization, ( cultural diversity, and the history of race relation; in the United States help to explain this diversity.

Anderson, Tammy L. and Mott, Joshua A. 1998.  “Drug-Related Identity Change: Theoretical Development and Empirical Assessment,” Journal of Drug Issues, 28(2): 299-328. 

......Our study targets an understanding of the drug-related identity change process, which may offer important sociological insights into the etiology of drug abuse. Our work is grounded in symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, and an extant drug-identity model (Anderson 1994). We use a quantitative survey instrument and retrospective accounts to test our model with a representative sample of white and black females and males seeking treatment for drug abuse in mid-Michigan. Our data show that for many drug-related identity change began in childhood and early adolescence with marginalizing experiences that helped create ego identity discomfort and lost

......Control in defining an identity before drug use Identification with a drug subculture offered alternative identities to resolve such predicaments. Additionally, we found that identification with a drug subculture significantly reduced ego identity discomfort during drug use, which, thereby, substantiates the claim that subcultures can act as solutions to individual problems and predicaments.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1998.  “Drug Identity Change Processes, Race, and Gender: Part 1.  Explanations of Drug Misuse and a New Identity-Based Model.” Substance Use and Misuse, 33 (11): 2263-2279. 

......The present paper explores race and gender differences in a recent theoretical model (Anderson, 1994), consisting of several micro- and macro factors, that helps explain the identity-related processes of drug misuse. The approach is qualitative, featuring in-depth interviewing with 45 self-identified drug addicts. The study uncovered support for the general concepts of the identity-based model across four subgroups: Black females, White females, Black males, and White males. However, important race and gender differences emerged. Gender and race-related socialization and stratification explain most of the differences and suggest reconceptualization of the model. The investigation further demonstrates the promise of identity-based approaches in extending our knowledge of the etiology of drug misuse and related intervention policies.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1998.  “Drug Identity Change Processes, Race, and Gender: Part 2.  Micro-level Motivational Concepts.”  Substance Use and Misuse, 33(12): 2469-2483.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1998.  “Drug Identity Change Processes, Race, and Gender: Part 3.  Macro-level Opportunity Concepts.”  Substance Use and Misuse, 33(14): 2721-2735. 

......Throughout the 20th century, scholars studying drug misuse have pinpointed various macrolevel (broad cultural and social structural) influences on the problem. The drug identity change model includes two such macrolevel factors. It maintains that social climates conducive to drug use (availability and popularity of drugs over the years) and social appraisal sources provide important opportunities for drug-related identity change. Social climates conducive to drug use help foster the formation of small groups centered on drug-related activity and meaning systems, i.e., social appraisal sources. Identification with these groups helps reduce one's ego identity discomfort or temporarily solve one's identity problems. It is through this process, the model contends, that young people change from nondrug users to drug misusers. Part 3 discusses these two concepts and how they work in the lives of the four race and gender groups studied here.

Anderson, Tammy L. and Ripullo, Frank.  1996.  “Social Setting, Stigma Management, and Recovering Drug Addicts,”  Humanity and Society, 20(3), August: 25-43.

Anderson, Tammy L. and Bennett, Richard.  1996. “Development, Gender, and Crime: The Scope of the Routine Activities Approach,” Justice Quarterly, 13(1), March: 31-56. 

......In the past 15 years, the routine activities approach has gained considerable popularity in explaining crime rates. Its explanations are offered, however, without considering the approaches theoretical scope. Recent research suggests that the explanatory power of the perspective might differ across level of economic development and men's and women's arrest rates. To address the issue of theoretical applicability, separate regression equations are estimated for the scope conditions of development and gender, using cross-national time-series analyses. The findings suggest that the explanatory power differs when the scope conditions of development and gender are applied. The routine activities approach appears to explain minor theft arrest rates most accurately for men in developed nations. In less developed nations, none of the four routine activities indicators showed a relationship with men's theft arrest rates. Two indicators, motivation and guardianship, evidenced a relationship with women's minor theft rates. The implications for the generalizability of the routine activities concepts across development and gender are discussed.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1995. "Toward a Preliminary Macro Theory of Drug Addiction."  Deviant Behavior, 16:353-372.

......Currently, the drug addiction literature is replete with micro-level theories of addiction that offer important insights into individual and small-group processes leading to addiction. However, few offer much consideration of macro-level matters (e.g., social structural and cultural). Macro theories of addiction are even more scarce. This inattention to macro-level factors may ultimately impede the ability to reduce addiction and related social problems. The purpose of this article is to offer preliminary formulations for a macro theory of drug addiction. A critique of leading micro-oriented theories, coupled with Hall and Jefferson's (1976) Cultural Studies school, helps facilitate this effort. The discussion centers on drug subcultures instead of individual addicts and brings macro-level matters (('.g., economic and social inequality and cultural norm,. ant: values) to the center of the debate. Furthermore, the new theoretical formulations offer important insights into rates of addiction among population subgroups ant' their potentially diverse etiologies. The article conclude, with a call for theoretical refinement and empirical assessment.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1994.  "Drug Abuse and Identity: Linking Micro and Macro Factors."  Sociological Quarterly, 35(1):159-174.

......The quest to link micro and macro phenomena in symbolic interactionism has gained considerable attention over the years. The present study builds on this endeavor by linking micro and macro phenomena in the transformation of identities accompanying the movement into drug addiction. A qualitative approach is employed, featuring in depth interviewing with a purposive sample (N=30) of currently abstinent drug addicts from the 12-Step programs of Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) and Narcotics Anonymous (N.A.) in the Washington. D.C. Metropolitan Area. Findings indicate that identity change is a product of both micro ("ego identity discomfort." "status passages," "and a loss of control in defining one's identity") and macro phenomena ("social appraisal sources" and a "social climate conducive to drug use") and, thus, otters empirical support to symbolic interactionism's ability to deal with the macro as well as the micro. Findings also uncover insights into the etiology of drug addiction and pinpoint new directions tot combatting substance abuse.

Anderson, Tammy L.  1993.  "Types of Identity Transformation in Drug Using and Recovery Careers," Sociological Focus, 26(2):133-145.

......The literature about types of identity transformation is relatively scant compared to that documenting the processes leading to identity change. Using an interactionist perspective, this study of currently sober drug addicts explores what types of transformations are experienced during "drug using" and "recovery" careers. Intensive interviews were conducted during the Summer and Fall of 1990 with a purposive sample of drug addicts (n=30) active in 12-Step programs of Narcotics Anonymous (NA.) and Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Findings reveal a new type of identity transformation (i.e., temporary conversion) resulting from drug euphoria and also uncover other extant types of transformation (i.e., alteration and conversion) that were unexpected with this pool of respondents active in the NA and A.A. Identity Transformation Organizations. Implications for interactionist and drug addiction research are discussed.

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INVITED CHAPTERS, MONOGRAPHS AND OTHER PAPERS
(not peer reviewed)

Anderson, Tammy L. and Harrison, Lana. forthcoming in 2003.  “Therapeutic Community Drug Treatment in Prison,” Phillip Bean (Ed.) Treatment with Drug Offenders, Routledge Press.

Anderson, Tammy L. 2002.  “Issues in the Availability of Healthcare for Women in Prison,” in press in Female Prisoners in the United States: Programming Needs, Availability, and Efficacy. edited by Susan Sharp, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

......The considerable escalation of women sent to prison during the latter twentieth century finally helped shift attention to the various social, economic, and medical needs of this historically neglected population (Belknap, 2000). Among the concerns, and the focus of this chapter, are the numerous medical and mental health problems of today's female inmates. In comparison to their free-world female and incarcerated male counterparts, female prisoners suffer more frequent and serious disease, illness, and injuries (Maruschak & Beck, 1997) and require and utilize more medical and mental health services (Lindquist & Lindquist, 1999; Young, 1998). However, correctional institutions continue to offer inadequate health care to women inmates and far less than what they offer male offenders

Anderson, Tammy L.  2002.  “Property Crime,” in press in Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment.  David Levinson (Ed.).  Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Anderson, Tammy L. 2001.  “Drug Use Consequences and Social Policies,”Pp. 290-293 in Encyclopedia of Criminology and Deviant Behavior, Volume IV: Self-Destructive Behavior and Disvalued Identity, Charles E. Faupel and Paul M. Roman (Eds.), Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis Publishers.

Anderson, Tammy L. 2001.  “Drug Use and Gender,” Pp. 286-289 in Encyclopedia of Criminology and Deviant Behavior, Volume IV: Self-Destructive Behavior and Dis-valued Identity, Charles E. Faupel and Paul M. Roman (Eds.), Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis Publishers.

Anderson, Tammy L.  2001.  “Women and Property Crime.” Pp. 209-210 in Encyclopedia of Women and Crime,  Nicole Hahn Rafter (Ed.), Phoenix, AZ: The Oryx Press.

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